Bertrand Russell Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

Bertrand Russell - Essay Example There are people around the world who might actually think this way. They have no concern regarding God, religion, and anything spiritual. They have no time for all this or they are simply not bothered to actually find out the evidence for Christianity. Thus, till someone has actually researched and looked into every aspect of the religion they cannot just say there is no evidence for God. Like Hitchens said regarding God that â€Å"there exists not a shred of respectable evidence† (Stokes, 2012, p. 11). Besides this, the â€Å"lack of evidence† is also an excuse for those not wanting to change their views. They just chose to believe something and therefore, they would not simply change because of some evidence they come across or are told of. They cannot be forced to believe. As Jesus said: â€Å"Seek and you will find, knock and the door shall be opened, ask and it will be given you.   For he who seeks finds, and to him who knocks it shall be opened, and to him who asks it shall be given† (Githaite, 2007, p. 211). It clearly means that God will be available to those who actually make an effort to seek him and look for him; who try to find evidence regarding his existence. God does not force Himself upon us. However, He has not even left us to our own devices for us to work out our ways. God follows us and draws us to Himself. Jesus is quoted to have said: â€Å"No man can come to me unless the Father who sent me draws him† (Oxford University Press, 2006, p. 652). It is we who have to open up our minds and hearts to Him. God has given clues regarding his existence, he has given us a sound mind and heart and it is up to the human beings to look for them. God is visible to those who seek him while He hides away from the ones who do not. That is, â€Å"the evidence is there for those who have eyes to see† (Kreeft, 1988, p. 44). When it is said that enough evidence does not exist to prove that there is a God, it does not defini tely mean that existence of God becomes a scientific fact; rather, the present evidence just makes the Christian belief rational. Previously one major reason behind there being so many atheists was that the philosophers of those times were mostly atheists and they gave very solid arguments against God, gaining followers and making a huge impact. Now, however, the philosophers are theists and again their arguments are apparently very valid and intellectual, thus they being outspoken Christians and the belief in God. There is just too much information and evidence of the existence of God. To start with there is the Big Bang Theory according to which the universe was created out of nothing. Big Bang led to not just the formation of this universe, matter and energy but also time and space. It just does not make any sense that anything at all can be created out of nothing; it is just not possible either scientifically or philosophically. That only leaves one idea: that there is a very po werful Higher Being who formed the universe and now controls it. The Big Bang was caused by Him. In fact, the universe was not just formed but also maintained continuously and intelligently. There is scientific evidence to prove this fact. Stephen Hawking found that in case the universe had expanded less than even one part in a hundred thousand million million a second after the Big Bang, the universe would have re-collapsed into a hot fireball. It is very obvious that a great and powerful mind is

Research study Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Research study - Assignment Example He asserts that several elements can be used to define quality of goods and services. Such factors include performance, operational features, aesthetics, reliability, durability, conformity, perceived quality and serviceability. Garvin reiterates that satisfaction among customers should not be restrained to goods alone. It should also be extended to services. According to the research, it is clear that customers establish a balance between price and benefits obtained from the goods and services acquired. For this reason, the research emphasizes that marketers should often equate value of goods and services with price. In order for businesses to deliver excellent services and products, they should exactly understand customers’ tastes and preferences. However, it is worth noting that different customers have various perspectives pertaining to what they really value in goods and services. Typically, not all dimensions used by businessmen to attract customers are appealing to them in a similar way bearing in mind that preference of certain brands by marketers is an indication of how customers perceive their goods and services. According to Garvin (2009), businesses should try as much as possible to comprehend their clients’ tastes and perspectives. Consequently, they will be able to increase the success rate of marketing their merchandises. For instance, Big W is a departmental store located in Australia that deals with sales of major products such as households, leisure, health, farm, entertainments and kids’ products. In the process of expanding its sales coverage, it has established a series of stores in Australia. At the same time, the company has increased several components including grocery. Currently, the company has put in place several links both at the local and international level. Needless to say, employees and managers in the company are very keen in analysing and adhering to consumers’ tastes and preferences. The researche r defines quality characteristics targeted in the research. The researchers note that entrepreneurship in business is about exchanges between buyers and manufacturers. Since it is continuous process, business men ensure that they win customers favour for future. For this purpose, it is important to understand the quality characteristics of products or services in order to ensure constant inflow of customers. Companies are able to sustain a royal group by offering quality products and services hence guaranteeing their future sale. Vividly, customers influence on future purchase is dependent on the present quality of goods and services obtained in the market. If at any time they feel dissatisfied, they are likely to change their purchase sites in future. It is evident from research conducted that, the quality of products derived from companies highly influence purchases in future either positively or negatively. Further, the researcher notes that it is advisable for businesses to fost er qualitative satisfaction to clients and their target groups. This can be done by conducting an analysis of clients’ preferences. The latter analysis will assist businesses to identify which products are highly preferred and to what extent customers are willing to purchase them. Additionally, considering customers preferences will help business men to make vital and reliable decisions that will favour customers. In line with this, this will help companies to optimize on more designs in terms of services and products. In order to accomplish this, they

Bertrand Russell Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

Bertrand Russell - Essay Example There are people around the world who might actually think this way. They have no concern regarding God, religion, and anything spiritual. They have no time for all this or they are simply not bothered to actually find out the evidence for Christianity. Thus, till someone has actually researched and looked into every aspect of the religion they cannot just say there is no evidence for God. Like Hitchens said regarding God that â€Å"there exists not a shred of respectable evidence† (Stokes, 2012, p. 11). Besides this, the â€Å"lack of evidence† is also an excuse for those not wanting to change their views. They just chose to believe something and therefore, they would not simply change because of some evidence they come across or are told of. They cannot be forced to believe. As Jesus said: â€Å"Seek and you will find, knock and the door shall be opened, ask and it will be given you.   For he who seeks finds, and to him who knocks it shall be opened, and to him who asks it shall be given† (Githaite, 2007, p. 211). It clearly means that God will be available to those who actually make an effort to seek him and look for him; who try to find evidence regarding his existence. God does not force Himself upon us. However, He has not even left us to our own devices for us to work out our ways. God follows us and draws us to Himself. Jesus is quoted to have said: â€Å"No man can come to me unless the Father who sent me draws him† (Oxford University Press, 2006, p. 652). It is we who have to open up our minds and hearts to Him. God has given clues regarding his existence, he has given us a sound mind and heart and it is up to the human beings to look for them. God is visible to those who seek him while He hides away from the ones who do not. That is, â€Å"the evidence is there for those who have eyes to see† (Kreeft, 1988, p. 44). When it is said that enough evidence does not exist to prove that there is a God, it does not defini tely mean that existence of God becomes a scientific fact; rather, the present evidence just makes the Christian belief rational. Previously one major reason behind there being so many atheists was that the philosophers of those times were mostly atheists and they gave very solid arguments against God, gaining followers and making a huge impact. Now, however, the philosophers are theists and again their arguments are apparently very valid and intellectual, thus they being outspoken Christians and the belief in God. There is just too much information and evidence of the existence of God. To start with there is the Big Bang Theory according to which the universe was created out of nothing. Big Bang led to not just the formation of this universe, matter and energy but also time and space. It just does not make any sense that anything at all can be created out of nothing; it is just not possible either scientifically or philosophically. That only leaves one idea: that there is a very po werful Higher Being who formed the universe and now controls it. The Big Bang was caused by Him. In fact, the universe was not just formed but also maintained continuously and intelligently. There is scientific evidence to prove this fact. Stephen Hawking found that in case the universe had expanded less than even one part in a hundred thousand million million a second after the Big Bang, the universe would have re-collapsed into a hot fireball. It is very obvious that a great and powerful mind is

The Reason of Enlightenment Essay Example for Free

The Reason of Enlightenment Essay Society today is in a paradox. Everything is infected with sameness and repetition. Every sensual experience of the individual is subjected to standardization. Acceptance is the key in success as the capitalist mode of production continually influences behaviour of the individual as well as society as a whole. The capitalist mode of production becomes a powerful tool in manipulating the masses as well as affecting the creative process of human consciousness. What matters for most cultural industries is not the creativity of products or mere understanding but rather a passive acceptance and monetary return. Society is the subject of the industry as it continually addresses the consumer’s concerns rather than society dictating the flow of the industry. Because of the industry’s ‘customized’ goods, society has no room for imagination, creativity, and understanding since these products already fit the ideal description. The culture industry also delimits the aesthetic aspect of human nature as the arts are also subjected to production and return of profit. The essence of art and creativity is lost and also become mere products of the industry. In Theodore Adorno and Max Horkheimer’s Dialectics of Enlightenment, the thinkers present a Social Critical Theory of the contemporary society and the adverse ideologies brought about by science, empiricism, and reason, all of which are products of the age of enlightenment. The Development of Critical Theory It is essential to mention the development of Social Critical Theory in lieu of the viewpoint that Adorno and Horkheimer used in their attempt to criticise the false notions brought about by the change in culture and the industry. Social Critical Theory has its roots from the Marxist ideologies that openly criticises the capitalism ideology (Ray 1993: ix). Marxism suggests that there is an imbalance with the structural social class as it is marginally separated by two polar opposites in society: the abusive bourgeoisie, and the proletariat or the working class. Marxist doctrine states that man’s essence is himself, and labour, which is the power to create, is merely an extension. At the presence of labour and society, man becomes a necessity or a commodity. If a poor man who has no material wealth, becomes a mere commodity at the presence of labour and exchanges the only thing he has – his essence. Man becomes for sale, while the rich get richer as they continue to capitalize on the plight of the poor man’s essence. From the Marxist doctrines, this social theory eventually separated into two – the revisionist and orthodox Marxist ideologies which retain the ideals of Marxism but differ in method. Marxist revisionist proposes a bloody revolution for the complete eradication of social classes (Ray 1992). Critical theory attempts to dig deeper into other existing binaries of ideologies and subvert them in such a way that the meta-narratives becomes petite. The rise of the Frankfurt school slightly deviated from the idea of criticising social norms but instead focused on the idea of the Enlightenment which paved the way for the development of science and technology. Frankfurt school thinkers such as Adorno and Horkheimer tackled the idea of the Enlightenment as a false notion in the development of society. The Frankfurt school of thought argues that essence and originality are lost as consumers are placidly fed with the same objects that satisfy them temporarily. The mass-produced products and ideas are transforming society into technocracy and docility – that society’s happiness is based on mass happiness rather than individual and subjective satisfaction. Science and technology ultimately enshrines efficiency and affectivity that dominate political governance so that we see a society ruled by technocrats. The industry forms culture rather than culture forming the industry. Critical Theory plays a significant part on the idea of how society aims to live life everyday. Critical theory also provides an opportunity to criticise fallacious social norms and allows the chance for discourse (Ray 1992). Adorno and Horkheimer In view of Adorno and Horkheimer’s The Dialectics of Enlightenment, the authors offer a clear and definitive implication of the 18th century Enlightenment movement and how it suppressed society in terms of ideologies and production. Enlightenment is understood as the advance of thought that aims to liberate human beings from â€Å"fear and installing them as Masters† (Adorno 1997: 1). This concept also shares similar ideas with Immanuel Kant’s summation of the Enlightenment during the 18th century. â€Å"Dare to Think! † was the banner of reason during those time (Ray 1992: 5). Reason should be used in order to individuate man, to dispel myth, to rid of fear of intellectual docility, and to provide the ability to know. Reason became the main weapon for this intellectual movement, as it attempted to break away from the mystical, dogmatic, and mythological foundations of knowledge. Adorno argues that the Enlightenment’s program was â€Å"to dispel myths, to overthrow fantasy with knowledge† (1997: 1). The formation of reason was a complete deviation from the rebirth of philosophical explorations of the Renaissance, which gave emphasis on the use of classical philosophy from Plato, Aristotle, and such. Enlightenment and reason were the foremost tenets of the movement and arguably countered the use of myth and mysticism as the basis of human knowledge. Reason led to the development of empiricism and science, the systematized thought of acquiring knowledge through observation, experimentation and synthesis. Knowledge, acquired through such methods, establishes man as the master of nature. However, Adorno states that this knowledge is abused by man himself as â€Å"knowledge, which is power, knows no limits, either in its enslavement of creation or in its deference to worldly masters† (1997: 2). Technology is the essence of such knowledge as it aims to manipulate concept into method and exploitation. To Adorno, technology does not provide concepts, ideas, or the simple joy of understanding, but rather suppresses the individual to docility. Further, Adorno explains the nature of Enlightenment as a movement dispelling the myths of old. As observed from the pre-Platonic and classical philosophers themselves, they were the ones who pioneered the use of reason or logos as the truthful method of acquiring knowledge rather than basing on mythological narration. As the development of reason became the foundation of science, man discarded meaning to be replaced by formula, causal rules, and probability. The obsession on the use of empirical basis as a method of acquiring universal truths led to the false formation of an industry that not only caters to the need of its consumers but also subjects them into docile and content buyers that guarantee success through monetary return (Ray 1992). The Culture industry, in essence, is the product of the false notion of Enlightenment and reason. Everything has to be proven in order to be verifiable and accepted. Laws, beliefs, and thinking are systematized; they are now bound to the governing laws of reason and empirical knowledge. Though the movement still has its positive effects on development, and the start of a radical change in thinking has definitely brought about breakthroughs in modern science and technology, it also has an adverse effect on society. Adorno suggests: â€Å"For culture now impresses the same stamp on everything† (1997: 120). This widespread movement also relates to the culture industry, where everything loses its individuality for the sake of standardization and acceptance in return for economic benefits of the industry. The whole world is passed through the filter of the culture industry. Everything is affected by such change. The formation of the industry in our context has becoming the mould in which culture is formed and trimmed. Things that had once an aesthetic value lose their real sheen and become mere cliches. Today, our actions fall under what we know as popular and will serve the general purpose of the culture industry: mass producing in order for the economy to function properly (Adorno, 1992: 8). The standardization of things that are produced in order to serve the general interest of the public is quite ironic. The public, which is supposed to be the providers in the economy, become the subjects of the industry itself. In turn, the industry is the big shot boss that makes use of every need of the employee in order to bloom. Society is then the false blood that gives life to the industry, which continues to exploit every aspect of our need, in order to grow and develop an unbreakable barrier in which our supposed-to-be powerful freedom may never break. By continuing to patronize what the industry keeps on producing, it then forms consciousness of popularity — the general idea that the mass accepts. â€Å"It is claimed that standards were based in the first place on consumer’s needs, and for that reason were accepted with so little resistance† (Adorno 1997: 100). The cycle continuous; from fashion trends, food, lifestyle, music, and the arts, these modes of expressions has fallen to this false notion of culture. It loses its identity to become a standard among the people that once used to uphold its individual essence. â€Å"The familiar experience of the moviegoer, who perceives the street outside as a continuation of the film he has just left, because the film seeks strictly to reproduce the world of everyday perception has become the guideline for production† (Adorno 1997: 99). What the people want to see is the continuation of the reality he lives in but only decreased to a lighter note as a means of escape from the hustle and bustle of the corporate world. Entertainment has become a means of escape. The only escape from the work process in the factory and office is through entertainment. Amusement then becomes boring, since to be amusing, it must cost no effort to think. The spectator must need no thoughts of his own. Amusement is then a mindless reel of farce that acts as a distraction from reality. It has no real meaning because the spectator does not need meaning in order to be distracted from the pressure of everyday work (Adorno 1997: ). The same goes with films. â€Å"Film denies its audience any dimension in which the mind might roam freely in imagination† (Adorno 1997: 100). Movies present an alternate reality as a means of escape from the business of the industry. Man, tired from work, resorts to amusement and film to produce a necessitated concept of another reality. That it presents the ideal world inside the theatre and the moviegoer is presented with reality after the film is finished. Thus, films in our context today serve as a basis of lifestyle. From the alternate reality presented by the movies, human behaviour is influenced through an unconscious effort of influence. The industry, apart from the standardized goods and ideologies, also feed the only retribution of man from the pressure of material capitalism. Ideas and concepts are also manipulated to standardization. Thus, placidity is not also applied in the individual’s actions but also to the natural system of consciousness and thought. The ultimate purpose then is for benefit and popularity rather than the art of making a movie. That is why the formation of indie (independent) films attempts to break from such typical notions of Hollywood movies in order to preserve the real essence of movie-making. However, in comparison to major blockbuster films, indie films never achieved the same level of popularity and income even though the indie directors and producers never intended for their movie to be even recognized. That is because such actions are against what is generally accepted and popular. The Madness of Music As a student of music himself, Adorno characterizes the notions brought about the effect of the culture industry with regard the arts, especially on music. He characterizes popular music from serious music. Music is defined as the arrangement and accordance to its form and arrangement. To Adorno, classical music is considered as serious music, for it strictly follows the laws from which they are based and made. The rigidity in the discipline makes the composition itself bound to the parameters of perfection; hence, music is a masterpiece. It follows time signature, tempo, harmony, tone construction, etc. that when such composition is first heard, it is appreciated as a whole and even more appreciated when the parts are examined specifically. On the other hand, the distinction between serious music and popular music lies within its formative structure. Popular music, based on the culture industry’s precepts, capitalizes on standardization. Pop music is predictable upon close observation. Its predictability lies with its musical structure. At first, it may fool the listener of its catchy and creative theme, but, contrary to serious music when parts are examined specifically, its harmonics are built on simple and almost simplistic tone structure that it cannot be left alone without the other. The essence of the music is lost as it lacks the qualities of a ‘serious’ music that may have otherwise refined its colour (Adorno 1997: 104). In our present context, the rise of the music industry has become the ambition for most music artists today. Songs are composed in order to gain widespread popularity, especially among the youth. If we are to look closely at each band’s composition and harmony of their songs, it has rather simple arrangement of chords and repetition of melody from the start up until the beginning. The flimsy form of the music is compensated by the loud execution and performance of their songs and electrifying guitar solos in order to cover up the repetition. It lacks creativity and limits the music to only a few chords. Plus, such simplicity is also the key of some rock bands of not ‘making it’ or not enduring an imprint of legacy from their music. They only enjoy a brief period of popularity that does not leave a lasting impression on the target audience they wish to capture. Standardization extends from the most general features to the most specific ones. Pop music is refined to suit the untrained ear of the masses. It is also mass-produced in order for the artist and the recording company to achieve its benefits. In order for people to like it, music is arranged which is appealing to the public, for music, the same with art, cannot be reproduced without any guarantee of economic remuneration. Novelty and creative are not emphasized since novelty cannot be applied to what is already standard and generally accepted by the people. It is also a form of entertainment and escape; simplified and catchy so as to serve a distraction rather than stimulating oneself in Symphonies or Sonatas (Adorno 1997: 101). Ultimately, for Adorno, the main point of the critique is focused on the development of the individual’s creative tendencies – especially on the arts. According to Witkin, Adorno did not give a blatant connotation that to appreciate art means sophistication in the individual’s part but rather the use of the arts as perpetuated in the industry. â€Å"However, it was not skill or talent that mattered to him, here, but the interests it served and the use to which it was put† (Witkin 2003: 2). As the age of Enlightenment ushered in the development of science, the process of acquiring knowledge developed from a mystical and contextual approach to an empirical and experiential process. Ironically, enlightenment meant that the individual is self-aware of his or her own actions and liberated of fear from the human consciousness. However, as science led the way to the development of newer systems of thought, it produced the development of media (film, music, print) that became ‘standard’ products of consumption. To Adorno and Horkheimer, society becomes placid consumers to these forms; music becomes ‘popular’ and depends on record-breaking sales in order to sell. Films present an alternative to reality, distracting the individual from the bustle of the industry as a means of escape, and print/visual media becomes accessible to all. What the culture industry produces consequently influences behaviour. Standardization in the culture industry meant that the process of invention and innovation is in lieu with the needs of society. What society wants, the industry produces. Freedom, according to the Dialectics of Enlightenment, is sacrificed, as consumers are ‘tamed’ into cooperation. Thus, the industry thrives on income and profit, without any thought or conscience. For the industry, it does not matter for the products to be morally or ethically acceptable as long as the consumer accepts it and benefits the industry in turn. Contemporary Critique The pioneering efforts of Adorno and Horkheimer in the critique of the culture industry gave rise to the formation of contemporary theories on the said subject. On the subject of the culture industry’s critique, David Hesmondhalgh provides a technical explanation of the processes the culture industry undergoes. His arguments retain the critique presented by Adorno but focus more on the shift changes and patterns of continuity in the cultural industries. Hesmondhalgh presents a different viewpoint on Adorno’s subject, as he attempts to bridge the cultural industry as a main distributor of information as well as an unconscious influence over society. Today, cultural industries have changed radically. â€Å"The largest companies no longer specialise in a particular cultural industry such as film, publishing, television, or recording; they now operate across a number of different cultural industries† (Hesmondhalgh 2002: 1). The scope of the cultural industry is not anymore specified into one criterion of the arts; rather, through the development of technology and information systems, the industry now focuses on print, media, and information through the internet, publications, etc. However, contrary to Adorno’s viewpoint, the cultural industries and the goods that it produces, according Hesmondhalgh, are â€Å"complex, ambivalent, and contested† (2002: 3). He argues that the text and information disseminated by the industry do not adhere to the doctrine of capitalism or structured domination. In addition, Hesmondhalgh also differs from the arguments presented by Adorno that the culture industry subjects consumers into passivity, wherein there is no room for the imagination to play. Adorno gives importance to the deeper aesthetic appreciation of art, which he differentiated into ‘serious’ and ‘popular’. For Hesmondhalgh however, there is still creativity in the cultural industry: â€Å"The invention and/or performances of stories, songs, images, poems, jokes, and so on, in no matter what technological form, involves a particular type of creativity – the manipulation of symbols for the purposes of entertainment, information and perhaps even, enlightenment† (2002: 4). Further, he separates art into symbolic creativity and artists into symbol creators and these different kinds of artists reflect the extremities of society in which they live in (2002: 4) Paradoxical Ideology In the Dialectics of Enlightenment, society has this unanswered and unnoticed threat growing in the background. The industry and the generally ‘popular’ things are becoming the basis of everyday life. Adorno and Horkheimer suggest that popular culture is like a â€Å"factory producing standardized cultural goods to manipulate the masses into passivity; the easy pleasures available through consumption of popular culture make people docile and content, no matter how difficult their economic circumstances† (Adorno 1997: n. p. ). The different viewpoints presented by contemporary thinkers support the arguments presented by Adorno, contradict them, or simply expound the different ideologies and applying it into a more modern perspective. Hesmondhalgh especially notes the cultural industry’s motivation in cultivating imagination and creativity for there is still creativity through innovation of new ideas and symbols even though they ultimately influence society in the end. However, the main idea still exists — that the culture industry is a by-product of the Enlightenment and the capitalist mode of production. Hesmondhalgh’s arguments still present the ideas of capitalist multinational corporations that manipulate symbols in order to disseminate such into society. His use of the term ‘symbols’, instead of ‘art’, necessarily perpetuates his notion on manipulation of ideas. Art is essentially the expression of human nature, but in the culture industry, essence does not exist. Thus, Hesmondhalgh’s arguments necessarily imply that symbolism is still creativity, although on a much lower scale. Capitalist companies, especially in modern scenarios, not only manipulate art but also communication and the media. For Hesmondhalgh, the control of the cultural industries over text and information are more pronounced than ever (2002: 7) Thus, the cultural industry’s shift change of scope has greatly differed from Adorno’s time, yet still maintains the capitalist coercive nature. What remains is that society’s needs are still catered by the culture industry. Furthermore, it is claimed that standards produced by the culture industry are based on consumers needs, and that is why accepted with little or no resistance at all. â€Å"The result is the circle of manipulation and retroactive need in which the unity of the system grows ever stronger. No mention is made of the fact that the basis on which technology acquires power over society is the power of those whose economic holds over society is greatest. A technological rationale is the rationale of domination itself. It is the coercive nature of society alienated from itself† (Adorno 1997: 121). The capitalist structure still maintains its firm hold over society as it influences behaviour through catering specific needs of its consumers while transcending a different level of consumerism. The essence of human expression is lost through standardization of art, music, film, and such. Society becomes docile, leaving no room for imagination, and the culture industry grows because of this ignorance. References Adorno, T. and Horkheimer, M. (1997) Dialectic of Enlightenment. London: Verso. Curran, J. (1979) Mass Communication and Society. Beverly Hills, California: Sage. Garnham, N. (1990) Capitalism and Communication: Global Culture and the Economics of Information. London: Sage Publications Garnham, N. (2000) Emancipation, the Media, and Modernity: Arguments About the Media and Social Theory Oxford: Oxford University Press. Hesmondhalgh, D. (2002) The Cultural Industries London: Sage. Martin-Barbero, J. (1993) Communication, Culture and Hegemony: From the Media to Mediations. London: SAGE Publications. McGuigan, J. (1996) Culture and the Public Sphere. London: Routledge. Miege, B. (1989) The Capitalization of Cultural Production. New York: International. Ray, L. (1993). Rethinking Critical Theory : Emancipation in the Age of Global Social Movements. London: Sage. Witkin, R. (2003) Adorno on Popular Culture. London: Routledge.

Life And Battles Of Saigo Takamori History Essay

Life And Battles Of Saigo Takamori History Essay The Last Samurai: The Life and Battles of Saigo Takamori, written by Mark Ravina, chronicles Saigos life, from childhood that fashioned his courage to his own death at the Satsuma Rebellion. In pre-industrial Japan, samurai meant military nobility. This book is a biography of Saigo that explains many of the events leading up to the Restoration and the role the battle of Satsuma played in the Restoration. Saigo Takamori is revered as one of Japans most loyal and honorable samurai. Part of the legend for Saigo was the fate of his severed head. The other part of the legend is was he killed or did he commit suicide as an act of heroism. It is unclear what year Saigo was born. Some references have 1827, while others have 1828. Regardless of the year, Saigo was born into a samurai family that was very low ranked in Kagoshima. He was born into wealth or rank. He was educated at a local level. His became very educated in Chinese classics and Zen, as well as swordsmanship. His first job was as an assistant clerk in a country office. In 1854, at the age of 26, he was selected to journey the Daimyo Shimazu Nariakira to promote closer ties with the imperial court. This journey is where his political career began. Saigo went on many journeys with statesmen. In 1858, he was a part of the Ansei purge and fled with a priest. The preist and Saigo made a suicide pact. Saigo backed out of the pact, only after the priest had already committed to his end of the deal by drowning himself. Saigo survived the journey but was later exiled to Amami Oshima Islands. In 1862, he returned to political life, but was forced into exile once again. He was brought out of exile in 1864. He was called back to the main island to train a group of Satsuma warriors. Saigo was to help his lord fight for the restoration of the emperor. Saigo became one of the main leaders of the new Japan. In 1868, Saigo and his troops led a revolt to destroy and create a powerful new state. He became the leader in Meijis new government. Saigo was now an active member of the Meiji government. Although Saigo supported many of the Western-style reforms, he was torn by the sense that he was betraying his supporters. It was a desire for Saigo to die in service to his emperor. Saigo showe d great loyalty to the emperor and his followers. Unsure about the government he had helped to create, Saigo wanted to end his career with one last movement. In 1873, Saigo wanted to go to Korea and demand the Korean king recognize the Meiji emperor. He had every intention to draw his sword if he had to. Saigo never was able to move forward with his plan to have the Japanese emperor recognized. His plan was dismissed and treated as reckless. He was denied his chance to show his loyalty and courage to the emperor. He resigned from the government and returned to Satsuma, his native land Satsuma. Saigo opened up military like academy for the former samurai warriors. He trained the men in frugality, honesty, and courage. This group resented the modernization of Japan more so than Saigo. Saigo feared the impersonal, commercial and centralized nation would destroy samurai traditions of personal honor, regional loyalty, and social service. Japan in the 1870s was going through many changes of industrialization and social and political changes. This process is also known as modernization. Many people had negative views on Japan and its culture. In 1876, westerners considered the Japanese to be uncivilized people. They thought that Japan was inferior to Caucasians in culture, intelligence, and culture. Japan even paid some Westerners very well to sit on government seats. Often this visits were short lived. The views that outsiders had on Imperial Japan are one reason that Japan sought to do away traditions of the samurai. Every aspect of traditional Japan and been thrown to the side. Japan had begun to westernize itself; not to be confused with Americanize. Saigo felt as if the traditions of the past would die out. The very hurried and colossal changes to Japanese culture, dress, and society appeared to many samurai to be a treachery. In 1876, the Meiji government stripped samurais of their swords. In defining how a moder n Japan should be, members of the Meiji government decided to follow the footsteps of United Kingdom and Germany, basing the country on the concept of noblesse oblige. Samurai were not to be a political force under the new order. Saigos followers and students rose in rebellion. They had a mission to let their voice be heard with their swords. The students made Saigo their leader of this uprising. Old Japan and new Japan met in battle in 1877. Early in the uprising, the rebels seized several local armories. Many of the rebels officers were trained in modern methods. The fight initially lasted from February to September. The imperial army began its final attack around four in the morning in September. By 5:30 A.M., the imperial army had destroyed all the fortifications of the rebels. At roughly seven in the morning, Saigo and his troops descended from the hill to face the Japanese army. They knew they were outnumbered. They knew they would die. Saigo died from a bullet wound, but legend has it that he died by his own sword. This was a great samurai tradition to die with honor at the end of ones life. This tradition is known as seppuku, a samurai suicide ritual. An autopsy of Saigo later revealed that he was onl y shot in the hip and would have been in too much pain to commit suicide. The imperial governments victory was short lived. They had Saigos body, but his head was missing. His head was but off with one clean slice. If the government was unable to provide a head, then the victory is incomplete. In looking for Saigos head, the imperial army was honoring one of the oldest traditions. It is said that severed heads were to be presented and were a celebrated part of Japanese warfare. These heads were often a tribute to the lords. No one is sure exactly what happened to Saigos head immediately following his death. Some say Saigos manservant hid the head. The head was later placed with Saigos body after a government official found it. One ironic part of searching for Saigos head is that the imperial army was honoring a tradition that was officially banished by the emperor. The new Japanese army was to be based on modern nationalism, not feudal loyalty. So in a sense, the death of Saigo brought forth some old traditions that had been banished in early years. It is said that this rebellion, the War of the Southwest, was the bloodiest battle that Japan had ever seen. Saigos forces were defeated. Old Japan was defeated. Over 12,000 men on both sides were killed. This battle also nearly bankrupted the new imperial government. Financially, devastating the Satsuma Rebellion cost the government significantly, forcing Japan off the gold standard and triggering the government to print paper currency. The imperial army had to use every resource available, including shipping lines, rail transport, police forces, and volunteers. The Imperial Japanese Armies were drafted, but many samurai volunteered to be soldiers and many advanced to be trained as officers. Much of the Imperial Army officer class was of samurai origin and they were highly motivated, disciplined and exceptionally trained. The rebellion was also successfully the close of the samurai class. After this war in 1877, there were no more samurai uprisings in Japan. Twelve years after Saigos death, the imperial government, denounced Saigo as a rebel and a traitor. In 1889, the government exonerated Saigo of all his crimes, and restored him to his imperial court rank. Saigo is still a legacy today in popular culture. A modern movie that is loosely based on the history of Saigo was produced. Many people still find his actions heroic none the less. Saigo was a samurai warrior who lived and died to protect the traditions he was so fond of preserving. In life and death, Saigo exemplified all that was labeled as being admirable in the samurai. This book written by Mark Ravina gives one last look at the final days of feudal government and the exciting career of Saigo. He gave his life to keep the samurai traditions at the forefront of the Japanese government. His efforts and loyalty have had a lasting impact on Japan and the interpretations of the samurai way and tradition.

In the poem Compose upon Westminster Bridge and London the poets present :: English Literature

In the poem Compose upon Westminster Bridge and London the poets present two very different. In the poem Compose upon Westminster Bridge and London the poets present two very different and contrasting views of the same city. William Wordsworth view of London is positive and optimistic. William Blake on the other hand presents a very negative dismal picture of the city. William Wordsworth was born in 1770 and has always had a love of nature. He studied at Cambridge University, which later helped him to become the writer he always wanted to be. In 1787he wrote for the European magazine. In 1970 Wordsworth had an affair with a French girl who inspired him to write poetry but he still kept a close contact with his natural surroundings. Some of wordsworths best poems were under the title of The Prelude which was made up of Philosophical autobiographical poems in 1778 completed in 1805 but only only became published in 1850 also whilst on a trip in Germany he was inspired by nature and its natural surroundings to write more poems. Later on in life Wordsworth abandoned his radical ideas and became a patriotic, conservative public man. He then died in 1850. William Blake was born in 1957. Blake grew up in London and spent most of his life there, been educated by his mother .Not only did he become a poet but he was also a painter visionary mystic and an engraver he also printed his own books. Blake proclaimed the supremacy of the imagination over treating reason as the basic of belief and knowledge of the 18th century but failed to understand how shadowed his career actually was. Later on he experienced visions of angels and ghostly monks. He had his first book of poems in 1783 called poetical sketches and was followed by songs of innocence and songs of experience. His most famous poem was â€Å"The Tyger† as he wrote from a child’s understanding of London, Blake lived a prosperous life he didn’t leave himself any debts at the end of his career or life in 1827. William Wordsworth view of London is good as he looks at the beauty of the town and describes what the town is like using positive vocabulary which makes the poem sound strong also it helps you to visualise its surroundings. When I read this poem it made me feel that nothing could get as beautiful as London could as he sees it for what is made of â€Å"the fairest site on earth† and makes you want to be there as it sounds like a â€Å"grand† place to be.

Comparing Daisy Miller and The Beast in the Jungle by Henry James Essay

  Ã‚  Ã‚     Ã‚  Henry James' Daisy Miller and "The Beast in the Jungle" are first and foremost powerful tragedies because they employ such universal themes as crushed ambitions and wasted lives. And the appeal of each does not lie solely in the darkening plot and atmosphere, but in those smallest details James gives us. Omit Daisy's strange little laughs, delete Marcher's "[flinging] himself, face down, on [May's] tomb," and what are we left with? Daisy Miller would be a mere character study against the backdrop of clashing American and Euro- pean cultures and "The Beast in the Jungle," a very detailed inner diary of a completely self-absorbed man who deservingly meets his fate in the end. It is only when we consider the unfulfilled social ambitions of Daisy Miller and the hopeless, empty life of John Marcher as tragedies that we begin to feel for these two works and discover the unmistakable depths that make them so touchingly, and sometimes disturbingly, profound. Their tragic conclusions are about the only thing these stories share, though; there is a stark difference in the way Henry James approached his narrative and characterization technique to convey most fully the underlying tragedies. And yet, despite such differences, which draw mainly from the use of opposing tones of voice in the two stories, the bleakness of the stories of Daisy and Marcher is unmistakable.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Edith Wharton proposes an interesting theory as to what makes a tragedy, and it has very much to do with our reading experience. What we know about the events slowly unfolding before us, or what the author allows us to know, heavily influences the way we feel about the story and its characters, ... ...knowing that comes from reading is sometimes also granted to the characters we are reading about. Despite the differences in narrative techniques, the two stories do converge here. It is sad to leave these stories knowing that part of the blame for the fates of the two main characters must actually be put on themselves, but even sadder to see that they are not allowed to remain ignorant forever, to know that they, too, finally realize how they have become their own worst enemies. And herein lies the essence of their tragedies: this "illumination" (54), "this horror of waking" (673).   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Works Cited James, Henry. "The Beast in the Jungle." The Story and Its Writer: An Introduction to Short Fiction. Ed. Ann Charters. Boston: Bedford Books, 1995. ______. Daisy Miller. New York: Dover Publications Inc., 1995.